(c) Physiological needs

In Maslow’s hierarchy, physiological needs (food, water, sleep) are at the base and must be satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating.

(c) Moderate difficulty

People high in n-Ach prefer moderately difficult tasks — challenging enough to provide satisfaction upon success, but not so difficult that failure is almost certain.

(b) Jealousy

Ekman’s universally recognised basic emotions are: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise. Jealousy is a complex social emotion, not a basic one.

(b) Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus contains the lateral hypothalamus (hunger centre — stimulates eating) and the ventromedial hypothalamus (satiety centre — signals when to stop eating).

Intrinsic motivation is often considered more valuable for deep learning and long-term engagement, while extrinsic motivation can be effective for initiating new behaviours.

Self-actualisation is the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It refers to the desire to realise one’s full potential — to become everything one is capable of becoming.

Characteristics of self-actualised people (according to Maslow):

• Creative and spontaneous
• Accept themselves and others
• Have a strong sense of purpose
• Experience deep, meaningful relationships
• Have “peak experiences” — moments of intense joy and fulfilment

Maslow believed that self-actualisation is possible only after lower-level needs (physiological, safety, love, esteem) are substantially met. However, he noted that very few people fully achieve self-actualisation.

Example: An artist who paints not for money or fame but for the sheer joy of creative expression is pursuing self-actualisation.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory that arranges human needs in a pyramid with five levels:

1. Physiological needs (base) — Food, water, sleep, oxygen — essential for basic survival
2. Safety needs — Security, stability, protection from danger and uncertainty
3. Love and belonging needs — Friendships, family bonds, romantic relationships, sense of community
4. Esteem needs — Self-respect, confidence, recognition, achievement
5. Self-actualisation (top) — Realising full potential, creativity, personal growth

Key principle: Lower-level needs must be substantially satisfied before higher-level needs become primary motivators. A person who is starving will focus on obtaining food before seeking social connections or self-fulfilment.

Strengths:

• Provides a comprehensive and intuitive framework for understanding human motivation
• Recognises that motivation is not just about survival — humans have higher-order psychological needs
• Has practical applications in education, management, counselling, and marketing
• Highlights the concept of self-actualisation, inspiring humanistic approaches

Limitations:

• The hierarchy may be too rigid — people can pursue higher needs even when lower ones are not fully met (e.g., an artist who creates despite poverty)
• Cultural bias: The hierarchy prioritises individual achievement (self-actualisation), which may be more valued in individualistic Western cultures. Collectivist cultures may prioritise community and belonging over individual fulfilment
• Difficult to test scientifically: The concepts of “need satisfaction” and “self-actualisation” are subjective and hard to measure empirically
• Some critics argue needs can be pursued simultaneously rather than sequentially

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

Ekman’s cross-cultural research demonstrated that people from diverse cultures (including isolated tribes) could recognise and produce the same basic emotional expressions. This supports the idea that basic emotional expressions have a biological/evolutionary basis and are universal.

(i) Meera has intrinsic motivation for painting — she paints because she finds it personally enjoyable and fulfilling, not for any external reward.

(ii) Her parents are trying to create extrinsic motivation for studying — offering an external reward (a new phone) as an incentive for achieving high marks.

(iii) Painting is fulfilling Meera’s need for self-actualisation — the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy. Through painting, she is expressing her creativity and realising her artistic potential.

(iv) This phenomenon is called the overjustification effect. When people who are already intrinsically motivated to perform an activity are given external rewards for it, they may start to attribute their behaviour to the reward rather than their own interest. If the reward is later removed, their motivation for the activity may decrease below the original level because they no longer see themselves as doing it “for fun” but rather “for the reward.”

Example: If Meera’s parents start giving prizes for every painting she creates, she may gradually lose her intrinsic love for painting and only paint when a reward is expected.

(i) Arjun is experiencing anger (and frustration).

(ii) His reaction is maladaptive because:

• Shouting at his sister and throwing objects are aggressive behaviours directed at people/objects unrelated to the source of frustration
• These actions can harm relationships, damage property, and do not solve the original problem (failing the driving test)

(iii) Two healthy strategies:

1. Cognitive reappraisal: Arjun could reinterpret the situation — instead of seeing the failure as a catastrophe, he could view it as a learning experience (“I know what to improve next time”). This changes the emotional impact of the event.

2. Physical exercise or relaxation: He could go for a run, practise deep breathing, or take a walk to release the physiological tension caused by anger. Physical activity reduces stress hormones and improves mood.

(iv) This concept is called displacement — a defence mechanism (described by Freud) in which a person redirects negative emotions from a threatening target (the driving test/examiner) to a less threatening or more accessible target (the younger sister, objects in the room).