(c) J.P. Das, Naglieri and Kirby

The PASS (Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous, Successive) model is based on Luria’s neuropsychological framework and was proposed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby.

(c) Practical intelligence

Practical intelligence (contextual sub-theory) involves the ability to adapt to, shape, or select real-world environments — often called “street smartness.”

(b) Emotional

Emotional intelligence was proposed by Salovey and Mayer (popularised by Goleman), not by Gardner. Gardner’s eight intelligences include Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-Kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.

(c) William Stern

William Stern introduced the concept of the Intelligence Quotient as the ratio of Mental Age to Chronological Age, multiplied by 100.

(b) A minimum level of intelligence is needed for creativity

The threshold hypothesis states that a minimum IQ (around 120) is necessary for creative output. Beyond this threshold, the correlation between IQ and creativity is weak.

Example: A person may have average intelligence but high mechanical aptitude, indicating they could excel in engineering with training.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively in oneself and in relationships.

Four components (Salovey & Mayer):

1. Perceiving emotions — accurately recognising emotions in self and others
2. Using emotions — employing emotions to facilitate thinking and creativity
3. Understanding emotions — comprehending emotion language and how emotions evolve
4. Managing emotions — regulating one’s own emotions and handling interpersonal situations

Charles Spearman proposed a Two-Factor Theory of intelligence:

• g-factor (General Intelligence): A single underlying mental energy that influences performance on all cognitive tasks. It represents general mental ability common to all activities.

• s-factor (Specific Abilities): Abilities unique to particular tasks. Each task has its own s-factor (e.g., verbal ability, mathematical ability, spatial ability).

According to Spearman, performance on any task = g + s. The g-factor explains why people who do well on one type of test tend to do well on others.

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences proposes that intelligence is not a single, unitary ability but a collection of eight distinct intelligences:

1. Linguistic — mastery of language (writers, poets)
2. Logical-Mathematical — logical reasoning and numerical ability (scientists)
3. Spatial — mental imagery and spatial judgement (architects, artists)
4. Musical — sensitivity to sounds, rhythm, melody (musicians)
5. Bodily-Kinaesthetic — physical coordination and dexterity (athletes, dancers)
6. Interpersonal — understanding and interacting with others (counsellors, leaders)
7. Intrapersonal — understanding oneself (philosophers, spiritual leaders)
8. Naturalistic — recognising patterns in nature (biologists, farmers)

Why it is a departure from traditional views:

• Traditional IQ tests focus mainly on linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities, treating intelligence as a single dimension.
• Gardner argues that a person can be low in one intelligence but exceptional in another (e.g., a person who struggles with mathematics may be an outstanding musician).
• This theory broadens the concept of intelligence to include abilities valued in diverse cultural and professional contexts, not just academic performance.
• It has practical implications for education — teachers can cater to different learning styles and multiple forms of talent rather than relying only on verbal-analytical approaches.

The PASS Model was proposed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby based on A.R. Luria’s theory of brain functioning. PASS stands for:

1. Planning (Frontal Lobe):

• Involves setting goals, developing strategies, and monitoring performance
• Example: Planning how to study for an exam

2. Attention-Arousal (Brain Stem, Reticular Formation):

• Involves maintaining alertness and focus; resisting distractions
• Example: Concentrating during a lecture despite noise outside

3. Simultaneous Processing (Occipital-Parietal Lobes):

• Involves integrating separate pieces of information into a coherent whole
• Example: Understanding a map by seeing all parts together

4. Successive Processing (Frontal-Temporal Lobes):

• Involves processing information in a specific serial order
• Example: Remembering a sequence of steps in a recipe

Link to brain functioning:

• Each PASS component is associated with a specific brain region, making this a neuropsychological model of intelligence.
• Unlike traditional IQ tests that produce a single score, the PASS model identifies specific cognitive strengths and weaknesses linked to brain functioning.
• It has educational applications — a student weak in successive processing may need different teaching strategies than one weak in simultaneous processing.

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

According to the threshold hypothesis, a minimum IQ (around 120) is necessary for creativity. Beyond this threshold, other factors such as motivation, personality traits (openness), and environmental support become more important than IQ in determining creativity. Therefore, having an IQ of 135 does not guarantee high creativity.

(i) Priya excels in Analytical Intelligence (Sternberg’s componential sub-theory) — she can analyse, compare, and evaluate information, which is reflected in her high IQ and academic success.

(ii) She appears to lack Emotional Intelligence — the ability to perceive, understand, and manage emotions in herself and others. Her difficulty in understanding friends’ feelings and constant arguments suggest poor interpersonal skills and emotion regulation.

(iii) Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences best accounts for her uneven profile. She may have high Logical-Mathematical and Linguistic intelligence but low Interpersonal intelligence. Gardner’s framework allows for strengths in some intelligences and weaknesses in others.

(iv) Developing emotional intelligence could help Priya:

• Perceive others’ emotions accurately (recognise when friends are upset)
• Understand the causes of others’ feelings
• Manage her own emotional responses (control temper during arguments)
• Build stronger relationships and collaborate effectively in groups, leading to better social and academic outcomes

(i) The Western view of intelligence emphasises speed of mental processing, logical-analytical thinking, and measurable academic achievement. Intelligence is often assessed through standardised tests that focus on cognitive speed and accuracy.

(ii) The Indian/Eastern perspective takes a broader and more holistic view. Intelligence is not limited to cognitive abilities but also includes social competence (getting along with others), moral understanding (knowing right from wrong), self-regulation (controlling impulses and emotions), and spiritual consciousness (self-awareness, inner peace).

(iii) Psychologists distinguish these as:

• Technological intelligence — the Western view emphasising cognitive skills, speed, and technical knowledge
• Integral intelligence — the Eastern/Indian view that integrates cognitive, emotional, social, moral, and spiritual dimensions

This distinction highlights that the concept of intelligence is culturally shaped — what is valued as “intelligent” depends on the cultural context.

(i) Aptitude is the potential to learn and succeed in a specific area with appropriate training. It indicates what a person can do in the future.

Achievement, on the other hand, measures what a person has already learned or accomplished. It reflects past learning.

Example: A student may have low marks in Science (low achievement) but high aptitude for scientific reasoning, meaning they could perform well if given proper instruction.

(ii) Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), which measures verbal reasoning, numerical ability, abstract reasoning, mechanical reasoning, spatial relations, and other domain-specific aptitudes.

(iii) Advantages:

1. Helps students identify their strengths and areas of potential, enabling them to make informed stream choices
2. Reduces the chance of misfit between a student’s abilities and their chosen field, leading to better academic satisfaction and career outcomes

(iv) Limitation: Aptitude tests provide a snapshot of potential at one point in time and may not capture the full range of a student’s abilities. Factors like motivation, interest, socio-economic background, and test anxiety can influence performance. Over-reliance on test scores without considering the student’s own preferences and aspirations may lead to inappropriate guidance.

(b) Projective technique

The Rorschach test uses ambiguous inkblot stimuli. Responses are interpreted to reveal unconscious motives, conflicts, and personality characteristics.

(d) Libido

Libido is a psychic energy or drive (associated with the id), not a structural component. The three structures are the Id, Ego, and Superego.

(c) Introversion

The Big Five are: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN). Note that the trait is “Extraversion,” not “Introversion.”

(c) Albert Bandura

Self-efficacy — the belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific tasks — is a central concept in Bandura’s social cognitive theory.

(c) Sublimation

Sublimation involves redirecting socially unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable or productive activities. Channelling aggression into sports is a classic example.

Self-concept answers the question of identity, while self-esteem reflects the value or worth one places on that identity.

Type A and Type B were identified by Friedman and Rosenman through their study of heart disease patients.

1. Repression: Pushing threatening or painful thoughts into the unconscious mind.

Example: A person who was bullied in school has no conscious memory of the events.

2. Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings or motives to someone else.

Example: A person who is jealous of a colleague accuses the colleague of being jealous of them.

3. Rationalisation: Creating logical-sounding excuses to justify unacceptable behaviour or feelings.

Example: A student who fails an exam says, “The exam was unfairly difficult; nobody could have passed it,” instead of acknowledging lack of preparation.

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory holds that personality is shaped by unconscious forces and early childhood experiences.

1. Structural Model — Three components:

• Id (pleasure principle): Operates in the unconscious; seeks immediate gratification of basic instincts and desires. It is irrational and impulsive.
• Ego (reality principle): Develops from the id; operates in the conscious and preconscious. It mediates between the demands of the id, the superego, and reality using rational thinking.
• Superego (morality principle): Internalised moral standards and ideals learned from parents and society. It includes the conscience (guilt for wrongdoing) and the ego-ideal (pride for meeting standards).

2. Levels of Consciousness:

• Conscious: Thoughts and perceptions currently in awareness
• Preconscious: Thoughts not in immediate awareness but easily accessible
• Unconscious: Repressed desires, memories, and conflicts that influence behaviour without awareness — the largest and most influential part

3. Defence Mechanisms:

When the ego is threatened by anxiety (from conflicts between id, superego, and reality), it uses defence mechanisms such as:

• Repression — pushing painful memories into the unconscious
• Denial — refusing to accept reality
• Projection — attributing one’s unacceptable feelings to others
• Sublimation — channelling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities

These mechanisms operate unconsciously and protect the ego from overwhelming anxiety.

Example (Type): A person is classified as either “introvert” or “extravert” — they belong to one category.

Example (Trait): The Big Five model rates a person on a scale from low to high on Extraversion — a person might score moderately high rather than being placed in a fixed category.

Modern psychologists generally prefer the trait approach because it captures the nuances and complexity of personality more accurately.

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

Projective tests (like the Rorschach and TAT) present ambiguous stimuli. Because there are no “right” or “wrong” answers, respondents cannot easily guess what response is expected, making it harder to fake. This is why they are considered useful for revealing unconscious motives and conflicts that people might not report on a self-report questionnaire.

(i) Rahul exhibits Type A personality. He is highly competitive, aggressive, impatient, and driven to achieve — classic Type A characteristics. He pushes himself excessively and reacts with anger when others outperform him. Type A individuals are at higher risk for stress-related health problems.

(ii) Rahul is using Projection — he is attributing his own excessive work behaviour to others by calling them “lazy,” thus avoiding acknowledging his own unhealthy patterns. Some may also interpret this as Rationalisation — justifying his extreme behaviour by claiming it is normal.

(iii) The Behavioural Approach would emphasise that Rahul’s personality has been shaped by environmental factors such as parental expectations, reinforcement for high achievement, and punishment or criticism for failure. His competitive behaviour may have been learned through observation and reinforcement.

(iv) Rahul could practise self-regulation by:

• Self-observation: Monitoring his study hours and stress levels
• Self-evaluation: Setting realistic goals rather than aiming for perfection
• Self-reinforcement: Rewarding himself for balanced behaviour (e.g., taking breaks, socialising)
• Practising mindfulness or relaxation techniques to manage anxiety

(i) Unconditional positive regard means accepting and valuing a person completely, without any conditions or judgement. It means loving and respecting someone regardless of what they do or say. Rogers believed this is essential for healthy personality development — when people receive conditional regard (“I will love you only if you behave well”), they suppress parts of themselves, leading to incongruence.

(ii) The real self is who a person currently is — their actual thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. The ideal self is who a person aspires to be — their goals, ambitions, and desired qualities.

When there is a large gap (incongruence) between the real self and ideal self, a person experiences anxiety, dissatisfaction, and low self-esteem. Conversely, when the real self and ideal self are closely aligned (congruence), a person experiences well-being, self-acceptance, and personal growth.

(iii) Rogers belongs to the Humanistic Approach to personality, which emphasises free will, personal growth, and the innate tendency towards self-actualisation. Another prominent psychologist from this approach is Abraham Maslow, who proposed the hierarchy of needs and the concept of self-actualisation.

(i) The TAT is a projective technique of personality assessment. It was developed by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan.

(ii) The psychologist analyses the story for recurring themes, emotions, motives, and conflicts that the patient projects onto the characters. Since the picture is ambiguous, it is assumed that the patient projects their own unconscious needs, desires, fears, and conflicts onto the characters and situations in the story. For example, if the patient consistently creates stories about loneliness and rejection, this may indicate underlying feelings of isolation or abandonment.

(iii)

Advantage: The TAT can reveal unconscious motives, conflicts, and emotional states that the individual may not be aware of or may be unwilling to report directly. It is harder to fake since there are no “correct” answers.

Disadvantage: Interpretation is highly subjective — different psychologists may interpret the same story differently, leading to low inter-rater reliability. In contrast, self-report measures like the MMPI are scored objectively and produce standardised scores that can be compared across individuals.

(b) Hans Selye

Selye proposed the GAS model describing the body’s three-stage response to prolonged stress: Alarm Reaction, Resistance, and Exhaustion.

(c) Problem-focused coping

Making a study timetable is a direct, practical approach to dealing with the source of stress (exams). It involves actively planning and organising to reduce the stressor.

(b) Wanting to eat chocolate cake but worrying about gaining weight

In an approach-avoidance conflict, a single goal has both attractive (delicious cake) and unattractive (weight gain) aspects.

(b) Psychoneuroimmunology

This field studies the interaction between psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system.

(b) Stock market analysis

The WHO identified 10 core life skills including self-awareness, empathy, critical thinking, creative thinking, decision-making, problem-solving, communication, interpersonal relationships, coping with stress, and coping with emotions.

Hans Selye identified three stages in the body’s response to prolonged stress:

1. Alarm Reaction: The body recognises the stressor and initiates the fight-or-flight response — heart rate increases, adrenaline is released, muscles tense, and the body mobilises energy.

2. Resistance: The body attempts to cope with the continuing stressor. Physiological responses remain elevated, but the body appears to function normally on the surface. Internal resources are being consumed.

3. Exhaustion: If stress continues for too long, the body’s resources become depleted. Resistance breaks down, leading to increased vulnerability to diseases, organ damage, or even death.

Both strategies can be effective depending on the nature of the stressor.

Positive health is more than the absence of disease — it is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being (as defined by WHO).

Four ways to promote positive health:

1. Regular exercise — at least 30 minutes of physical activity daily reduces stress and improves mood
2. Balanced nutrition — a healthy diet supports both physical and mental well-being
3. Adequate sleep — 7–9 hours of quality sleep helps the body recover and the mind function optimally
4. Social support — maintaining positive relationships provides emotional support and a sense of belonging

Nature of Stress:

Stress is a pattern of responses that occurs when events (stressors) disturb a person’s equilibrium and exceed their perceived ability to cope. It involves:

• An environmental demand (the stressor)
• The individual’s appraisal of the demand
• The individual’s response (physiological, psychological, behavioural)

Types of Stress:

1. Eustress (positive stress) — motivates and enhances performance. Example: Excitement before a sports competition.
2. Distress (negative stress) — causes anxiety, impairs performance, harms health. Example: Coping with the death of a family member.

Sources of Stress:

1. Life events — Major changes such as death of a loved one, divorce, marriage, job loss. Holmes and Rahe developed a scale to measure the stress caused by life events.
2. Daily hassles — Small, recurring daily irritations such as traffic jams, deadlines, and household chores. Research shows that accumulated hassles can be as harmful as major life events.
3. Traumatic events — Severe, overwhelming events such as natural disasters, war, accidents, or abuse, often leading to PTSD.
4. Internal sources — Frustration (goal blocked), conflict (incompatible goals), and pressure (self-imposed or external expectations).

Stress Management Techniques:

1. Relaxation techniques: Deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and guided imagery help reduce physiological arousal.
2. Meditation and Yoga: Regular practice calms the mind, reduces cortisol levels, and enhances emotional regulation.
3. Exercise: Physical activity releases endorphins (natural mood boosters) and reduces stress hormones.
4. Cognitive restructuring: Identifying and changing negative thought patterns (e.g., catastrophising) into more balanced, realistic thoughts.
5. Social support: Talking to friends, family, or a counsellor provides emotional comfort, advice, and practical help.
6. Time management: Prioritising tasks, breaking them into smaller steps, and avoiding procrastination reduce feelings of being overwhelmed.

Life Skills and Well-being:

The WHO identified 10 life skills that help individuals deal effectively with daily challenges:

• Self-awareness helps a person recognise their emotions and triggers
• Empathy builds strong relationships and reduces interpersonal conflict
• Critical thinking enables objective evaluation of situations
• Problem-solving provides constructive approaches to difficulties
• Effective communication prevents misunderstandings and builds trust

These skills collectively build psychosocial competence, enabling individuals to handle stress, make responsible decisions, and maintain positive mental health.

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

The field of psychoneuroimmunology has established that chronic stress leads to sustained cortisol release, which suppresses the immune system’s ability to fight infections. This is why stressed individuals are more susceptible to colds, infections, and other illnesses. The reason correctly explains the mechanism behind the assertion.

(i) Two sources of stress:

1. Academic pressure — the demand to study for board exams and the self-imposed expectation of scoring above 95%
2. Internal pressure (perfectionism) — her belief that anything less than 95% means “my life is over” creates intense internal stress

(ii) Aisha may be in the Resistance stage transitioning towards Exhaustion. Her body has been coping with chronic stress for a prolonged period (staying up late, poor nutrition), but the physical symptoms (frequent headaches and colds) suggest her body’s resistance is wearing down and her immune system is being compromised.

(iii) Aisha is primarily using problem-focused coping (studying more to address the exam), but in an unhealthy and unsustainable way. She is neglecting emotion-focused coping entirely — she has stopped socialising, is not managing her emotions, and her catastrophic thinking (“my life is over”) is unchecked. A balanced approach would combine effective study planning with stress management.

(iv) Two strategies:

1. Cognitive restructuring — helping Aisha challenge her catastrophic belief (“If I don’t score 95%, my life is over”) and replace it with a more realistic thought (“I will do my best; my worth is not defined by one exam score”)
2. Time management and balanced routine — creating a structured study schedule that includes regular breaks, adequate sleep (7–8 hours), balanced meals, and time for relaxation and social interaction

(i) “Social support as a buffer” means that social support acts as a protective factor that softens or absorbs the negative impact of stress. Even when individuals face significant stressors, having a strong social network reduces the harmful effects on physical and mental health. This is known as the buffering hypothesis — social support does not eliminate stress but cushions its impact.

(ii) Two types of social support:

1. Emotional support — expressions of care, empathy, love, and trust (e.g., a friend listening to your problems)
2. Informational support — advice, guidance, and useful information (e.g., a teacher helping you create a study plan)

Other types include instrumental support (tangible help like money or materials) and appraisal support (feedback for self-evaluation).

(iii) Socially isolated individuals are more vulnerable because:

• They lack emotional comfort — there is nobody to share their worries with, increasing feelings of loneliness and helplessness
• They miss practical help — no one to share tasks or provide tangible assistance during difficult times
• They have no external perspective — without others to challenge negative thinking, they may spiral into unhealthy cognitive patterns
• Research shows isolation increases stress hormones and weakens the immune system through sustained physiological arousal

(b) APA (American Psychiatric Association)

The DSM-5-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, Text Revision) is published by the American Psychiatric Association for the classification and diagnosis of mental disorders.

(c) Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar Disorder involves alternating episodes of mania (elevated mood, excessive energy) and depression (persistent sadness, loss of interest).

(b) Positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Positive symptoms are “additions” to normal experience — delusions (false beliefs) and hallucinations (perceiving things that are not there) are hallmark positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

(b) Specific Phobia

A specific phobia involves intense, irrational fear triggered by a particular object or situation (e.g., fear of heights = acrophobia, fear of spiders = arachnophobia).

(c) Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

DID involves the presence of two or more distinct personality states. It was previously called “multiple personality disorder.” Note: Schizophrenia is NOT the same as DID — a common misconception.

The biopsychosocial model proposes that psychological disorders arise from the interaction of three types of factors:

1. Biological factors — genetics, neurotransmitter imbalances, brain abnormalities, hormonal disturbances
2. Psychological factors — maladaptive thinking, unresolved conflicts, faulty learning, low self-esteem
3. Social/cultural factors — family dysfunction, poverty, discrimination, traumatic experiences, cultural pressures

Rather than attributing disorders to a single cause, this model emphasises that it is the combination and interaction of these factors that leads to psychological disorders.

In OCD, obsessions and compulsions are linked — the compulsion is an attempt to neutralise the anxiety caused by the obsession.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is characterised by the following symptoms lasting at least 2 weeks:

1. Persistent depressed mood — feeling sad, empty, or hopeless most of the day
2. Anhedonia — loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities
3. Significant weight changes — unintentional weight loss or gain
4. Sleep disturbances — insomnia or hypersomnia
5. Psychomotor changes — agitation or retardation
6. Fatigue — loss of energy nearly every day
7. Feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt
8. Difficulty concentrating — indecisiveness
9. Recurrent thoughts of death — suicidal ideation or attempts

At least 5 of these symptoms must be present, including either depressed mood or anhedonia.

Anxiety disorders involve excessive, persistent, and often irrational fear or worry that significantly interferes with daily functioning.

General symptoms of anxiety:

• Excessive worry and restlessness
• Rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling
• Difficulty concentrating
• Muscle tension and fatigue
• Sleep disturbances

Major types:

1. Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Persistent, excessive worry about multiple areas (work, health, finances) for at least 6 months, even when there is no apparent reason for concern.

2. Panic Disorder: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks — sudden surges of intense fear reaching a peak within minutes. Physical symptoms include pounding heart, chest pain, shortness of breath, dizziness, and fear of losing control or dying.

3. Specific Phobia: Intense, irrational fear of a particular object or situation (e.g., acrophobia — fear of heights; claustrophobia — fear of enclosed spaces). The fear is disproportionate to the actual danger.

4. Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia): Intense fear of social situations where one might be scrutinised, judged, or embarrassed. This often leads to avoidance of social interactions, public speaking, or performance situations.

All anxiety disorders share the feature of disproportionate fear that is not justified by the actual threat, and they cause significant distress or impairment in daily functioning.

Schizophrenia is a severe, chronic mental disorder that affects thoughts, perception, emotions, and behaviour. It typically appears in late adolescence or early adulthood.

Positive Symptoms (additions to normal experience):

1. Delusions — firmly held false beliefs. Examples: delusions of persecution (believing others are plotting against you), delusions of grandeur (believing one is a famous person or has special powers).
2. Hallucinations — sensory experiences without external stimuli. Most common are auditory hallucinations (hearing voices), but visual, tactile, and olfactory hallucinations can also occur.
3. Disorganised speech — incoherent, tangential, or illogical speech patterns; jumping from topic to topic without logical connection.
4. Disorganised behaviour — unpredictable, inappropriate behaviour; difficulty performing goal-directed activities.

Negative Symptoms (reductions or losses of normal functioning):

1. Flat affect — little or no emotional expression; monotonous voice, blank facial expression.
2. Alogia — poverty of speech; very brief, empty responses.
3. Avolition — lack of motivation to initiate or sustain activities; difficulty maintaining hygiene, work, or social interactions.
4. Anhedonia — inability to experience pleasure.
5. Social withdrawal — reduced desire for social contact.

Note: Positive symptoms tend to respond better to medication (antipsychotics) than negative symptoms, making negative symptoms a significant challenge in treatment.

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

The fear of open or public spaces is called agoraphobia. It is a type of phobia characterised by intense, irrational fear that leads to avoidance of the feared situation. The reason correctly explains that phobias involve irrational fears leading to avoidance, which is exactly what the assertion describes.

(i) Vikram is most likely suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

(ii) Three supporting symptoms:

1. Flashbacks and nightmares — he re-experiences the traumatic event through vivid flashbacks and nightmares (intrusion symptoms)
2. Avoidance — he avoids driving or being a passenger, avoiding stimuli associated with the trauma
3. Emotional numbness and withdrawal — he has become emotionally numb and distant from family and friends (negative alterations in cognition and mood)

(iii) PTSD falls under Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders in the DSM-5-TR.

(iv) Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), specifically exposure therapy, could help Vikram. In exposure therapy, the therapist gradually and safely exposes Vikram to the feared stimuli (e.g., sitting in a parked car, then a moving car) in a controlled manner. This helps him confront the traumatic associations, reduce avoidance, and learn that the feared situation is no longer dangerous. Over time, the anxiety response diminishes through the process of extinction.

(i) Anorexia nervosa is a severe eating disorder characterised by extreme restriction of food intake, an intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted body image, leading to dangerously low body weight.

(ii) Two psychological symptoms:

1. Intense fear of gaining weight — despite being severely underweight, the individual is terrified of weight gain
2. Distorted body image — the individual perceives themselves as overweight even when they are dangerously thin

(iii) Anorexia is particularly dangerous because severe malnutrition can lead to life-threatening medical complications including cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat), kidney failure, bone density loss (osteoporosis), muscle wasting, and in extreme cases, death. It has one of the highest mortality rates of any mental disorder.

(iv) Bulimia Nervosa is another eating disorder. Unlike anorexia, individuals with bulimia:

• May maintain a normal or near-normal weight (rather than being severely underweight)
• Engage in recurrent episodes of binge eating (consuming large amounts of food rapidly) followed by compensatory behaviours (self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, excessive exercise)
• Experience feelings of loss of control during binges and intense shame or guilt afterward

The key difference is that anorexia involves severe food restriction, while bulimia involves a binge-purge cycle.

(b) Classical conditioning

Systematic desensitisation (developed by Wolpe) pairs relaxation responses with anxiety-producing stimuli, using the principle of counter-conditioning (a form of classical conditioning) to gradually extinguish the fear response.

(b) Beliefs

In the ABC model: A = Activating event, B = Beliefs (rational or irrational), C = Consequences (emotional/behavioural). Ellis argued that irrational beliefs about events (not the events themselves) cause emotional distress.

(c) Free association

Free association is a technique from Freud’s psychoanalytic therapy, not Rogers’s client-centred therapy. Rogers emphasised empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence (genuineness).

(b) Behaviour therapy

Token economy is based on operant conditioning — desired behaviours are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges.

(c) Financial profit

Ethical principles in psychotherapy include confidentiality, informed consent, competence, avoidance of harm, and appropriate professional boundaries. Financial profit is not an ethical principle.

Albert Ellis proposed the ABC model in REBT:

• A – Activating Event: The external event or situation that triggers a response (e.g., failing a test)
• B – Beliefs: The individual’s interpretation of the event — either rational (“I’ll study harder next time”) or irrational (“I’m a complete failure”)
• C – Consequences: The emotional and behavioural outcomes resulting from the beliefs (e.g., sadness or determination)

Key principle: It is not the event (A) that causes emotional distress (C), but the beliefs (B) about the event. By identifying and challenging irrational beliefs, the therapist helps the client develop more rational, adaptive thinking.

Rogers identified three core conditions essential for therapeutic change:

1. Empathy — the therapist makes a genuine effort to understand the client’s feelings and experiences from the client’s own perspective

2. Unconditional Positive Regard — the therapist accepts and values the client completely, without judgement or conditions, regardless of what the client says or does

3. Congruence (Genuineness) — the therapist is authentic, transparent, and honest in the relationship, without putting up a professional façade

According to Rogers, when these conditions are present, the client feels safe to explore their feelings and move toward self-actualisation.

Both approaches are often combined as Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT).

1. Behaviour Therapy:

Based on learning principles (classical and operant conditioning). It focuses on changing maladaptive behaviours rather than exploring unconscious conflicts.

• Systematic desensitisation — gradually pairs relaxation with feared stimuli to extinguish phobias
• Token economy — rewards desired behaviours with tokens exchangeable for privileges
• Aversion therapy — pairs unwanted behaviour with unpleasant stimuli
• Effective for phobias, OCD, addictions, and behavioural problems

2. Cognitive Therapy:

Based on the idea that distorted thinking causes emotional and behavioural problems.

• Beck’s Cognitive Therapy — identifies and challenges cognitive distortions (overgeneralisation, catastrophising, selective abstraction) common in depression
• Ellis’s REBT — uses the ABC model to challenge irrational beliefs and replace them with rational ones
• Effective for depression, anxiety, and stress-related disorders

3. Humanistic-Existential Therapy:

Emphasises personal growth, self-awareness, and the search for meaning.

• Rogers’s Client-Centred Therapy — creates a safe environment through empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence, enabling the client to explore feelings and move toward self-actualisation
• Existential Therapy — helps clients confront issues of meaning, freedom, and mortality
• Gestalt Therapy — focuses on present experience and unresolved feelings
• Effective for personal growth, self-esteem issues, and existential concerns

Each type has strengths — behaviour therapy is most effective for specific behavioural problems, cognitive therapy for thought-related disorders, and humanistic therapy for personal development and self-exploration.

Rehabilitation is the process of helping individuals with mental disorders reintegrate into society and lead meaningful, productive lives. It goes beyond symptom reduction to focus on restoring dignity, independence, and quality of life.

Key components:

1. Occupational therapy — trains individuals in work-related skills, improving self-sufficiency and providing a sense of purpose

2. Social skills training — teaches communication, assertiveness, and interpersonal skills necessary for daily social interactions

3. Supported housing — provides structured living environments (e.g., halfway houses) for individuals transitioning from hospitals back into the community

4. Community mental health services — includes outpatient treatment centres, crisis intervention teams, day-care centres, and prevention programmes accessible to all

5. Family education and support — educates family members about the disorder, reduces stigma, and teaches them how to provide a supportive environment

6. Vocational rehabilitation — helps individuals find and maintain employment through job training, supported employment, and skill development

Importance: Rehabilitation recognises that recovery from mental illness is not just about medical treatment — it requires a supportive social environment, meaningful activity, and restoration of the person’s role in their family and community.

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

Aaron Beck’s research showed that depression is characterised by specific cognitive distortions — automatic negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future. Cognitive therapy targets these distorted thinking patterns, helping clients identify and replace them with more realistic thoughts. This is why cognitive therapy is especially effective for depression.

(i) Systematic desensitisation is a behaviour therapy technique developed by Joseph Wolpe.

(ii) Three steps:

1. Relaxation training: The therapist teaches Meera deep muscle relaxation, deep breathing, or guided imagery techniques
2. Anxiety hierarchy construction: Meera and the therapist create a graded list of dog-related stimuli from least to most anxiety-provoking (e.g., hearing the word “dog” → seeing a picture → seeing a dog from a distance → being near a dog → touching a dog)
3. Gradual exposure with relaxation: Meera practises relaxation while being exposed to each item on the hierarchy, starting from the least anxiety-provoking. She moves to the next level only when she can remain relaxed at the current level. Eventually, she can remain calm even in the presence of a real dog.

(iii) This technique is based on classical conditioning, specifically the principle of counter-conditioning — pairing the feared stimulus (dog) with a response (relaxation) that is incompatible with anxiety. Through repeated pairing, the fear response is extinguished.

(iv) The therapist might also use cognitive restructuring to address Meera’s irrational beliefs about dogs (e.g., “All dogs are dangerous and will attack me”). By challenging and replacing this belief with a more realistic one (“Most dogs are friendly; the incident was with one specific dog in unusual circumstances”), Meera’s anxiety can be further reduced, making the desensitisation process more effective.

(i) A halfway house is a supervised, community-based residential facility that provides transitional living for individuals recovering from mental illness. It serves as a bridge between hospitalisation and full independent living in society.

(ii) Halfway houses contribute to rehabilitation by:

• Providing a structured, supportive environment where residents can practise daily living skills (cooking, cleaning, managing finances) in a safe setting
• Offering ongoing counselling, social skills training, and vocational guidance to help residents develop the skills and confidence needed for independent living
• Reducing social isolation — living with others in a similar situation provides peer support and a sense of community
• Facilitating gradual reintegration into society rather than an abrupt transition from hospital to independent living, which can be overwhelming

(iii) Two other components of rehabilitation:

1. Community mental health services — outpatient clinics, day-care centres, and crisis intervention teams that provide accessible treatment and support
2. Vocational rehabilitation — job training, supported employment, and career counselling to help individuals gain and maintain meaningful employment

(a) Cognitive, Behavioural, Affective

These are the three components of the ABC model of attitudes: Affective (feelings), Behavioural (actions), and Cognitive (beliefs).

(b) Overestimating internal factors for others’ behaviour

The Fundamental Attribution Error is the tendency to attribute other people’s behaviour to their personal characteristics (dispositional factors) while underestimating the role of the situation (situational factors).

(b) Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Festinger proposed that when a person holds two contradictory cognitions, they experience discomfort (dissonance), which motivates them to reduce the inconsistency.

(c) Discrimination

Discrimination is the behavioural component of prejudice — it involves unfair treatment of individuals based on their group membership. Stereotypes are the cognitive component.

(b) Meaningful intergroup contact under favourable conditions

Allport proposed that contact between groups reduces prejudice when it occurs under conditions of equal status, common goals, cooperation, and institutional support.

Cognitive dissonance (proposed by Leon Festinger) is the psychological discomfort experienced when a person holds two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes, or when their behaviour contradicts their beliefs.

Example: A person who values honesty (attitude) but lies on their resume (behaviour) experiences dissonance. To reduce the discomfort, they might:

• Change their behaviour (correct the resume)
• Change their attitude (“Everyone exaggerates on resumes, so it’s okay”)
• Add a justifying cognition (“I need this job to support my family”)

Prejudice is the attitude; discrimination is the action that comes from that attitude. A person can be prejudiced without discriminating (internal bias without acting on it).

Four factors influencing attitude formation:

1. Family and socialization — parents’ attitudes are initially the strongest influence; children learn attitudes through observation and reinforcement

2. Peer group — friends and classmates shape attitudes through social comparison and conformity pressure

3. Personal experience — direct positive or negative experiences with an object or person shape attitudes (e.g., a good experience with a teacher creates a positive attitude toward the subject)

4. Media and information — television, social media, news, and advertising influence attitudes through repeated exposure and persuasion

Nature of Attitudes:

An attitude is a learned tendency to evaluate a person, object, or idea in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner. Attitudes are:

• Learned (not innate) — formed through experience and socialization
• Relatively stable — but can change under certain conditions
• Evaluative — they involve a positive or negative judgement

Three Components (ABC Model):

1. Affective Component — the emotional response (feelings) toward the attitude object. Example: “I feel happy when I help others”
2. Behavioural Component — the tendency to act in a certain way toward the object. Example: “I volunteer at an NGO regularly”
3. Cognitive Component — the beliefs and thoughts about the object. Example: “Helping others makes society better”

Factors influencing attitude formation:

1. Family — parents are the primary socialisation agents. Children acquire attitudes through imitation, instruction, and reinforcement.
2. Peer group — as children grow, peer influence increases. Conformity pressure and social identity shape attitudes.
3. Direct experience — personal encounters with the attitude object create strong attitudes (e.g., a positive experience at a hospital creates a favourable attitude toward doctors).
4. Media — mass media and social media constantly present information that shapes and reinforces attitudes through exposure and persuasion.
5. Culture — cultural norms and values determine which attitudes are acceptable or expected (e.g., attitudes toward marriage, education, work).
6. Conditioning — classical conditioning (association), operant conditioning (reinforcement), and observational learning (modelling) all contribute to attitude formation.

Prejudice is a preconceived, unjustified negative attitude toward members of a particular group, based solely on their membership in that group. It involves:

• Stereotypes (cognitive) — oversimplified beliefs about the group
• Negative emotions (affective) — hostility, fear, contempt
• Discrimination (behavioural) — unfair treatment

Sources of Prejudice:

1. Social learning — prejudice is learned from family, peers, and media through modelling and reinforcement
2. In-group favouritism — tendency to favour one’s own group and view out-groups negatively (Social Identity Theory by Tajfel)
3. Stereotyping — cognitive shortcuts lead to overgeneralised beliefs about groups
4. Realistic conflict — competition between groups for limited resources increases prejudice
5. Scapegoating — displacing frustration and aggression onto a weaker out-group
6. Historical and institutional factors — historical oppression and systemic inequality perpetuate prejudice

Strategies for handling prejudice:

1. Education — awareness programmes that promote understanding of diversity and the harm of stereotypes
2. Intergroup contact — Allport’s Contact Hypothesis — meaningful interaction between groups under conditions of equal status, common goals, and cooperation reduces prejudice
3. Legislation — anti-discrimination laws and policies that promote equality
4. Media representation — positive portrayal of minority groups to challenge negative stereotypes
5. Empathy training — perspective-taking exercises that help people understand the experiences of out-group members
6. Recategorisation — creating inclusive, superordinate identities (e.g., “we are all students”) to reduce in-group/out-group boundaries

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

The person’s attitude (“smoking is harmful”) contradicts their behaviour (continuing to smoke). This creates cognitive dissonance — psychological discomfort from holding contradictory cognitions. The reason correctly explains the mechanism behind the assertion.

(i) The manager is displaying discrimination — unfair or differential treatment of individuals based on their group membership (in this case, regional/community identity) rather than merit.

(ii) This represents the behavioural component of prejudice — the manager’s prejudiced attitude is being translated into discriminatory actions (biased hiring decisions).

(iii) The cognitive component underlying this behaviour is likely stereotyping — the manager may hold oversimplified, negative beliefs about the minority community (e.g., “they are not reliable” or “they won’t fit in”). These stereotypes lead to biased judgements regardless of individual merit.

(iv) Two strategies:

1. Blind recruitment/anonymous screening — removing identifying information (name, photo, community) from applications ensures candidates are evaluated solely on qualifications and experience
2. Diversity training — mandatory training for hiring managers on unconscious bias, prejudice, and the importance of inclusive hiring practices. This can be supplemented by establishing a diverse hiring panel to reduce individual bias

(i) According to the passage, media influences attitudes through repeated exposure to positive portrayals of groups. When people consistently see out-group members depicted favourably (as competent, kind, and successful), their attitudes gradually shift from negative to positive because the new positive images challenge and replace pre-existing stereotypes.

(ii) The principle of classical conditioning (association) explains this. Through repeated pairing of the out-group with positive attributes (competence, kindness, success), a new positive association is formed, replacing the earlier negative one. Observational learning (social learning theory) also applies — people learn new attitudes by observing positive models in media.

(iii) Example: A common stereotype is that women are not good at science and mathematics. This could be reduced by media depicting successful women scientists, engineers, and mathematicians in films, documentaries, and advertisements — showing them leading research projects, making discoveries, and excelling in STEM fields. Over time, repeated exposure to such portrayals would challenge and weaken the gender-based stereotype.

(b) Reduced effort in a group

Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone, due to diffusion of responsibility and reduced identifiability.

(c) Competing

Tuckman’s five stages are: Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, and Adjourning. “Competing” is not one of the stages.

(b) Makes initially held views more extreme

Group polarisation is the tendency for group discussion to strengthen members’ initial inclinations — making cautious individuals more cautious and risky individuals more risky.

(c) Primary group

A family is a primary group — small, intimate, with strong emotional bonds and long-lasting relationships.

(b) Suppressing dissent to maintain group harmony

Groupthink (identified by Irving Janis) occurs when group members prioritise consensus and harmony over critical thinking, leading to poor decision-making.

Social loafing is the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when working collectively in a group compared to when working individually.

Two ways to reduce social loafing:

1. Make individual contributions identifiable — when each person’s work can be tracked and evaluated separately, they are more likely to put in full effort (e.g., assigning specific tasks with individual accountability)

2. Keep groups small — in smaller groups, each member’s contribution is more visible and important, reducing the opportunity for free-riding

Group polarisation is the phenomenon where group discussion causes members’ initial attitudes to become more extreme in the same direction.

If members start with a slightly risky attitude, discussion will make the group more risky (risky shift). If they start cautiously, discussion will make them more cautious (cautious shift).

Example: A group of students initially somewhat in favour of organising a protest against a school policy discuss the matter. After discussion, they become much more strongly in favour and decide to stage a large-scale demonstration. The discussion amplified their initial inclination rather than moderating it.

Reasons: Social comparison (wanting to align with the dominant view), informational influence (hearing supporting arguments reinforces the position), and group identity (wanting to represent the group’s values strongly).

Nature of Groups:

A group is a collection of two or more individuals who:

• Interact with each other regularly
• Share common goals and interests
• Have defined roles and norms
• Perceive themselves as a collective unit
• Are interdependent — each member’s actions affect others

Groups are distinct from mere aggregates (e.g., people in a queue) because group members have a shared identity and structured relationships.

Why people join groups: Security, self-esteem, affiliation, goal achievement, status, and access to information.

Tuckman’s Model of Group Development:

1. Forming: The initial stage where members meet, get to know each other, and understand the group’s purpose. There is uncertainty and members are polite and cautious.

2. Storming: Conflicts and disagreements emerge as members compete for roles, express different opinions, and challenge authority. This can be an uncomfortable but necessary stage.

3. Norming: The group establishes shared norms, rules, and expectations. Cohesion develops, roles are clarified, and members begin cooperating effectively.

4. Performing: The group functions at its best. Members work collaboratively toward goals, resolve conflicts constructively, and achieve high productivity.

5. Adjourning: The group disbands after achieving its goals. Members may experience a sense of accomplishment along with sadness at the group’s end.

Not all groups pass through every stage smoothly — some may regress or get stuck at certain stages.

Groups exert powerful influence on individual behaviour through several mechanisms:

1. Social Loafing:

The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone. This occurs because:

• Diffusion of responsibility — the responsibility for the outcome is spread across all members, so no single person feels fully accountable
• Reduced identifiability — individual contributions may not be separately evaluated
• Free-rider effect — some members rely on others’ efforts

How to reduce social loafing: Make individual contributions identifiable, keep groups small, assign specific roles, set clear individual and group goals, and increase group cohesiveness.

2. Group Polarisation:

The tendency for group discussion to make members’ initial views more extreme. After discussion:

• A slightly risky group becomes more risky (risky shift)
• A slightly cautious group becomes more cautious (cautious shift)

Causes include:

• Social comparison — members adjust their views to match or exceed the dominant position
• Informational influence — new arguments supporting the prevailing view strengthen it
• Group identity — members adopt more extreme positions to demonstrate loyalty

Other forms of group influence:

• Conformity — adjusting behaviour to match group norms (demonstrated by Asch’s line experiment)
• Groupthink — suppressing dissent and critical thinking to maintain harmony, leading to poor decisions
• Social facilitation — improved performance on simple tasks in the presence of others

These phenomena demonstrate that being in a group fundamentally alters how individuals think and behave.

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

This describes social loafing. In larger groups, individual contributions become less visible (reduced identifiability), and responsibility for the outcome is diffused among many members. This causes individuals to exert less effort than they would if working alone.

(i) The phenomenon being demonstrated is social loafing — the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

(ii) Two causes:

1. Diffusion of responsibility — the four students feel that since others are “already handling it,” they don’t need to contribute. The responsibility for the project is spread across six people, reducing each individual’s sense of personal accountability.

2. Free-rider effect — the four students are “free-riding” on the efforts of the two hardworking students. They benefit from the group’s output (grades) without contributing their fair share of effort.

(iii) Three strategies:

1. Individual accountability — assign specific, clearly defined tasks to each student and evaluate each person’s contribution separately (e.g., individual marks for individual sections)

2. Reduce group size — divide the group of six into smaller groups of two or three, where each member’s contribution is more visible and essential

3. Peer evaluation — have group members rate each other’s contributions. This increases identifiability and social pressure to contribute, as each student knows their effort will be evaluated by their peers

(i) Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs in highly cohesive groups where the desire for consensus and harmony overrides members’ ability to think critically and evaluate alternatives realistically. It was identified by Irving Janis.

(ii) Two symptoms from the passage:

1. Suppression of doubts — members avoid expressing their concerns or objections to maintain group harmony
2. Pressure on dissenters — members who disagree are pressured to conform to the majority view, discouraging independent thinking

(iii) Groupthink leads to poor decisions because:

• Alternative viewpoints are suppressed — the group does not consider a full range of options or potential risks
• Critical evaluation is absent — members do not challenge assumptions or test ideas against evidence
• Illusion of unanimity — silence is interpreted as agreement, creating a false sense that everyone supports the decision
• As a result, the group may make a decision that is irrational, risky, or inappropriate — one that no individual would have made on their own

(iv) Two ways to prevent groupthink:

1. Assign a “devil’s advocate” — designate one member to deliberately challenge proposals and raise counterarguments. This ensures critical examination of ideas even in a highly cohesive group.

2. Encourage open discussion and dissent — the leader should actively invite different opinions, refrain from stating their own preference early, and create a safe environment where disagreement is welcomed rather than punished.