Chapter 2: Self and Personality
Unit II – Self and Personality (13 Marks)
2.1 Introduction
Who are you? What makes you unique? These are questions about the self and personality — two of the most fundamental concepts in psychology. The self refers to how we perceive and understand ourselves, while personality refers to the characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that make a person unique.
2.2 Self and Personality
Self and personality are closely related but distinct concepts:
| Concept | Definition |
|---|---|
| Self | The totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings about who they are |
| Personality | The unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts, and emotions shown by an individual |
The self is how you see yourself; personality is how you behave and are perceived by others.
2.3 Concept of Self
The self is the core of a person’s identity. It develops through social interactions and personal experiences.
Self as a Knower (I-self) and Self as Known (Me-self)
William James distinguished between:
- I-self (the knower): The subjective, active agent that thinks, perceives, and acts
- Me-self (the known): The objective, observable aspects of the self — how we describe ourselves
Components of Self
| Component | Description |
|---|---|
| Self-concept | How we perceive and describe ourselves (beliefs about our attributes) |
| Self-esteem | How we evaluate ourselves — sense of personal worth |
| Self-efficacy | Belief in our ability to succeed in specific situations (Bandura) |
| Self-regulation | Ability to control our behaviour, emotions, and thoughts to achieve goals |
2.4 Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self
Self-concept
Self-concept is the way a person thinks about and perceives themselves. It includes:
- Personal identity — name, body image, personal traits
- Social identity — roles (student, friend, daughter/son), group memberships
- Ideal self — the person one wishes to be
When the real self and ideal self are similar, a person experiences congruence and well-being. A large gap between them creates anxiety and dissatisfaction (Carl Rogers).
Self-esteem
Self-esteem is the evaluative component — how positively or negatively we feel about ourselves.
- High self-esteem: Confidence, self-acceptance, resilience
- Low self-esteem: Self-doubt, sensitivity to criticism, feelings of inadequacy
Factors influencing self-esteem: parenting style, peer acceptance, academic success, cultural norms.
Self-efficacy
Proposed by Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is the belief that one can successfully perform a specific task.
- High self-efficacy → greater effort, persistence, and resilience
- Low self-efficacy → avoidance of challenging tasks, giving up easily
Example: A student with high self-efficacy in mathematics will persist through difficult problems and believe they can improve.
Self-regulation
Self-regulation is the ability to organise and monitor one’s own behaviour.
Bandura’s model of self-regulation involves:
- Self-observation — monitoring one’s own behaviour
- Self-evaluation — comparing behaviour against standards
- Self-reinforcement — rewarding or punishing oneself for outcomes
2.5 Culture and Self
The concept of self varies across cultures:
| Dimension | Western/Individualist | Eastern/Collectivist |
|---|---|---|
| Self-construal | Independent self — separate, unique, autonomous | Interdependent self — connected to family, community, social group |
| Priority | Personal goals, individual achievement | Group goals, social harmony |
| Identity basis | Internal attributes (traits, abilities) | Social roles, relationships, duties |
| Boundary | Self is bounded and separate from others | Self is fluid and embedded in social context |
Example: In India, people often define themselves through their family, caste, community, and relational roles (“I am the daughter of…”), reflecting an interdependent self-construal.
2.6 Concept of Personality
Personality is the unique, relatively stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts, and emotions that characterises an individual.
Key features:
- Unique — no two persons have identical personalities
- Relatively stable — personality traits are consistent over time and across situations
- Integrated — personality is an organised whole, not a random collection of traits
2.7 Major Approaches to the Study of Personality
2.7.1 Type Approaches
Type approaches classify people into discrete categories based on dominant characteristics.
Hippocrates’ and Sheldon’s Typologies
Hippocrates proposed four temperaments based on bodily fluids (humours):
| Temperament | Humour | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Sanguine | Blood | Optimistic, social, active |
| Choleric | Yellow bile | Irritable, ambitious, leader-like |
| Melancholic | Black bile | Sad, analytical, perfectionist |
| Phlegmatic | Phlegm | Calm, reliable, passive |
Sheldon’s Body-Type Theory linked physique to personality:
| Body Type | Personality |
|---|---|
| Endomorphic (round) | Sociable, relaxed, comfort-loving |
| Mesomorphic (muscular) | Bold, assertive, energetic |
| Ectomorphic (thin) | Introverted, restrained, artistic |
Jung’s Personality Types
Carl Jung classified people into:
- Introverts — inward-oriented, prefer solitude, reflective
- Extroverts — outward-oriented, sociable, action-oriented
Friedman and Rosenman’s Type A and Type B
| Type A | Type B |
|---|---|
| Competitive, impatient, time-urgent | Relaxed, patient, easy-going |
| Hostile, aggressive | Less competitive, tolerant |
| Higher risk for heart disease | Lower risk for heart disease |
2.7.2 Trait Approaches
Trait approaches describe personality in terms of continuous dimensions rather than discrete types.
Allport’s Trait Theory
Gordon Allport identified three levels of traits:
| Level | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Cardinal trait | A dominant trait that influences almost everything a person does | Mother Teresa’s altruism |
| Central traits | 5–10 major traits that form the core of personality | Honest, kind, anxious |
| Secondary traits | Traits that appear in specific situations | Liking a particular food |
Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors (16 PF)
Raymond Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 source traits that underlie personality, including warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, and others.
Eysenck’s Three-Dimension Theory
Hans Eysenck proposed personality has three biologically based dimensions:
- Extraversion–Introversion (E)
- Neuroticism–Emotional Stability (N)
- Psychoticism–Socialisation (P)
The Big Five (OCEAN)
The most widely accepted trait model today:
| Factor | Description | High Score | Low Score |
|---|---|---|---|
| Openness | Imagination, curiosity | Creative, adventurous | Practical, conventional |
| Conscientiousness | Organisation, dependability | Disciplined, careful | Impulsive, careless |
| Extraversion | Sociability, assertiveness | Outgoing, energetic | Reserved, quiet |
| Agreeableness | Cooperation, trust | Helpful, trusting | Competitive, suspicious |
| Neuroticism | Emotional instability | Anxious, moody | Calm, resilient |
2.7.3 Psychodynamic Approach
Freud’s Theory of Personality
Sigmund Freud proposed that personality is shaped by unconscious forces and early childhood experiences.
Structure of Personality (Structural Model):
| Component | Principle | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Id | Pleasure principle | Primitive, instinctual urges; seeks immediate gratification |
| Ego | Reality principle | Mediates between id and superego; uses logic and reason |
| Superego | Morality principle | Internalised moral standards; conscience and ideal self |
Levels of Consciousness:
| Level | Content |
|---|---|
| Conscious | Thoughts and perceptions we are currently aware of |
| Preconscious | Memories and thoughts that can be brought to awareness |
| Unconscious | Repressed desires, memories, and painful experiences |
Defence Mechanisms: The ego protects itself from anxiety using unconscious strategies:
| Mechanism | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Repression | Pushing threatening thoughts into the unconscious | Forgetting a traumatic event |
| Projection | Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings to others | A dishonest person calling others liars |
| Denial | Refusing to accept reality | Ignoring a serious health diagnosis |
| Rationalisation | Creating logical excuses for unacceptable behaviour | “I didn’t want that job anyway” |
| Displacement | Redirecting feelings to a safer target | Yelling at family after a bad day at work |
| Sublimation | Channelling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities | Aggression channelled into sports |
| Regression | Reverting to childlike behaviour under stress | An adult throwing a tantrum |
Post-Freudian Approaches
Neo-Freudians modified Freud’s theory:
| Psychologist | Key Contribution |
|---|---|
| Carl Jung | Collective unconscious, archetypes, introversion-extraversion |
| Alfred Adler | Inferiority complex, striving for superiority, social interest |
| Karen Horney | Challenged Freud’s views on women; basic anxiety and neurotic needs |
| Erik Erikson | Psychosocial stages of development across the lifespan |
2.7.4 Behavioural Approach
The behavioural approach views personality as a set of learned behaviours shaped by the environment through reinforcement and punishment.
- B.F. Skinner: Personality is the sum of learned behaviour patterns shaped by operant conditioning
- Albert Bandura: Social learning theory — personality develops through observation, imitation, and modelling, not just direct reinforcement
Key point: In this view, personality is not fixed — it changes as the environment and reinforcement patterns change.
2.7.5 Cultural Approach
Personality is shaped by the cultural context in which a person lives.
- Cultures that emphasise individualism (Western) tend to produce personalities that are more independent, competitive, and self-expressive
- Cultures that emphasise collectivism (Indian, Japanese) tend to produce personalities that value group harmony, duty, and social relationships
2.7.6 Humanistic Approach
Humanistic psychologists emphasise free will, personal growth, and self-actualisation.
Abraham Maslow
- People are motivated by a hierarchy of needs (from basic physiological needs to self-actualisation)
- Self-actualised people are creative, spontaneous, accepting of themselves and others
Carl Rogers
- Emphasised unconditional positive regard — being accepted and loved without conditions
- The fully functioning person is open to experience, lives in the present, trusts their feelings, and is creative
- Discrepancy between the real self and ideal self leads to incongruence and anxiety
2.8 Assessment of Personality
2.8.1 Self-Report Measures
Individuals respond to standardised questionnaires about their own behaviour and feelings.
| Test | Creator | What it Measures |
|---|---|---|
| MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) | Hathaway & McKinley | Personality and psychological disorders |
| 16 PF Questionnaire | Cattell | 16 source traits of personality |
| NEO-PI-R | Costa & McCrae | Big Five personality factors |
| EPQ (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire) | Eysenck | Extraversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism |
Advantages: Objective, easy to administer, can compare across individuals
Limitations: Social desirability bias (people may present themselves favourably), requires self-awareness
2.8.2 Projective Techniques
Ambiguous stimuli are presented and the individual’s responses are interpreted to reveal unconscious motives and conflicts.
| Test | Creator | Stimulus | Response |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rorschach Inkblot Test | Rorschach | 10 symmetrical inkblots | Person says what the inkblot looks like |
| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) | Murray & Morgan | 30 ambiguous picture cards + 1 blank | Person tells a story about each picture |
| Sentence Completion Test | Various | Incomplete sentences | Person completes the sentences |
| Draw-a-Person Test | Machover | Blank paper | Person draws a human figure |
Advantages: Access unconscious material; difficult to fake
Limitations: Subjective interpretation; low reliability; time-consuming
2.8.3 Behavioural Analysis
Behaviour is directly observed and recorded in natural or controlled settings.
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
| Interview | Structured or unstructured face-to-face interaction |
| Observation | Watching and recording behaviour in its natural setting |
| Ratings | Others (teachers, peers, parents) rate the person’s behaviour on scales |
| Situational tests | Person is placed in a realistic situation to observe their behaviour |
| Nomination | Peers nominate individuals who display certain traits |
Key Terms Summary
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Self | Totality of conscious experiences about who one is |
| Self-concept | How one perceives and describes oneself |
| Self-esteem | Evaluative judgement of one’s own worth |
| Self-efficacy | Belief in one’s capacity to succeed (Bandura) |
| Personality | Unique, stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts, and emotions |
| Type approach | Classifying people into discrete categories |
| Trait approach | Describing personality along continuous dimensions |
| Id, Ego, Superego | Freud’s three structures of personality |
| Defence mechanisms | Unconscious strategies to reduce ego anxiety |
| Big Five (OCEAN) | Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism |
| Projective techniques | Tests using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious processes |
Practice Questions
Section A – Multiple Choice Questions (1 mark each)
Q1. The Rorschach Inkblot Test is an example of:
(a) Self-report measure (b) Projective technique (c) Behavioural rating (d) Aptitude test
Answer
(b) Projective technique
The Rorschach test uses ambiguous inkblot stimuli. Responses are interpreted to reveal unconscious motives, conflicts, and personality characteristics.
Q2. Which of the following is NOT a component of Freud’s structural model of personality?
(a) Id (b) Ego (c) Superego (d) Libido
Answer
(d) Libido
Libido is a psychic energy or drive (associated with the id), not a structural component. The three structures are the Id, Ego, and Superego.
Q3. The Big Five personality model includes all of the following EXCEPT:
(a) Openness (b) Conscientiousness (c) Introversion (d) Agreeableness
Answer
(c) Introversion
The Big Five are: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN). Note that the trait is “Extraversion,” not “Introversion.”
Q4. Who proposed the concept of self-efficacy?
(a) Sigmund Freud (b) Carl Rogers (c) Albert Bandura (d) Carl Jung
Answer
(c) Albert Bandura
Self-efficacy — the belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific tasks — is a central concept in Bandura’s social cognitive theory.
Q5. A person who channels aggressive impulses into competitive sports is using which defence mechanism?
(a) Repression (b) Displacement (c) Sublimation (d) Rationalisation
Answer
(c) Sublimation
Sublimation involves redirecting socially unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable or productive activities. Channelling aggression into sports is a classic example.
Section B – Short Answer Questions (2 marks each)
Q6. Distinguish between self-concept and self-esteem.
Answer
| Feature | Self-concept | Self-esteem |
|---|---|---|
| Nature | Descriptive — what I believe about myself | Evaluative — how I feel about myself |
| Focus | “Who am I?” (beliefs, attributes, roles) | “How worthy am I?” (positive/negative judgement) |
| Example | “I am a student, I am tall, I am creative” | “I feel good about myself” or “I feel inadequate” |
Self-concept answers the question of identity, while self-esteem reflects the value or worth one places on that identity.
Q7. What is the difference between Type A and Type B personality patterns?
Answer
| Feature | Type A | Type B |
|---|---|---|
| Behaviour | Competitive, aggressive, impatient, time-urgent | Relaxed, patient, easy-going, tolerant |
| Work style | Driven, hardworking, multi-tasking | Steady, unhurried, takes one thing at a time |
| Stress | Higher stress levels | Lower stress levels |
| Health risk | Higher risk of coronary heart disease | Lower risk of heart disease |
Type A and Type B were identified by Friedman and Rosenman through their study of heart disease patients.
Q8. Explain any three defence mechanisms with examples.
Answer
1. Repression: Pushing threatening or painful thoughts into the unconscious mind.
Example: A person who was bullied in school has no conscious memory of the events.
2. Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings or motives to someone else.
Example: A person who is jealous of a colleague accuses the colleague of being jealous of them.
3. Rationalisation: Creating logical-sounding excuses to justify unacceptable behaviour or feelings.
Example: A student who fails an exam says, “The exam was unfairly difficult; nobody could have passed it,” instead of acknowledging lack of preparation.
Section C – Long Answer Questions (5 marks each)
Q9. Describe Freud’s theory of personality. Include the structural model, levels of consciousness, and defence mechanisms.
Answer
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory holds that personality is shaped by unconscious forces and early childhood experiences.
1. Structural Model — Three components:
- Id (pleasure principle): Operates in the unconscious; seeks immediate gratification of basic instincts and desires. It is irrational and impulsive.
- Ego (reality principle): Develops from the id; operates in the conscious and preconscious. It mediates between the demands of the id, the superego, and reality using rational thinking.
- Superego (morality principle): Internalised moral standards and ideals learned from parents and society. It includes the conscience (guilt for wrongdoing) and the ego-ideal (pride for meeting standards).
2. Levels of Consciousness:
- Conscious: Thoughts and perceptions currently in awareness
- Preconscious: Thoughts not in immediate awareness but easily accessible
- Unconscious: Repressed desires, memories, and conflicts that influence behaviour without awareness — the largest and most influential part
3. Defence Mechanisms:
When the ego is threatened by anxiety (from conflicts between id, superego, and reality), it uses defence mechanisms such as:
- Repression — pushing painful memories into the unconscious
- Denial — refusing to accept reality
- Projection — attributing one’s unacceptable feelings to others
- Sublimation — channelling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities
These mechanisms operate unconsciously and protect the ego from overwhelming anxiety.
Q10. Compare the trait approach and the type approach to personality with examples.
Answer
| Feature | Type Approach | Trait Approach |
|---|---|---|
| Nature | Classifies people into discrete categories (types) | Describes personality along continuous dimensions (traits) |
| Flexibility | Either you are one type or another — no overlap | Everyone possesses every trait to a greater or lesser degree |
| Examples of models | Hippocrates’ four temperaments; Jung’s introvert/extravert; Sheldon’s body types; Friedman’s Type A/B | Allport’s trait theory; Cattell’s 16 PF; Eysenck’s three dimensions; Big Five (OCEAN) |
| Measurement | Categorical — fits people into boxes | Quantitative — places people on a scale/continuum |
| Limitation | Oversimplified; people rarely fit neatly into one type | Large number of traits can be unwieldy |
Example (Type): A person is classified as either “introvert” or “extravert” — they belong to one category.
Example (Trait): The Big Five model rates a person on a scale from low to high on Extraversion — a person might score moderately high rather than being placed in a fixed category.
Modern psychologists generally prefer the trait approach because it captures the nuances and complexity of personality more accurately.
Section D – Competency-Based Questions (CBSE Pattern)
Q11. (Assertion–Reason)
Assertion (A): Projective tests are considered more useful than self-report measures for understanding unconscious motives.
Reason (R): Projective tests use ambiguous stimuli, making it difficult for respondents to fake or give socially desirable answers.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Answer
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
Projective tests (like the Rorschach and TAT) present ambiguous stimuli. Because there are no “right” or “wrong” answers, respondents cannot easily guess what response is expected, making it harder to fake. This is why they are considered useful for revealing unconscious motives and conflicts that people might not report on a self-report questionnaire.
Q12. (Case Study)
Rahul is a 17-year-old student who always needs to be the best. He becomes extremely anxious if he does not top the class. He works excessively hard, often skipping meals and sleep. He is very competitive with his peers and often gets angry when others perform better. His doctor has warned him about stress-related health issues.
(i) Based on Friedman and Rosenman’s classification, which personality type does Rahul exhibit? Justify.
(ii) Which defence mechanism might Rahul be using if he says, “I don’t work too hard; everyone else is just lazy”?
(iii) Which approach to personality would emphasise the role of Rahul’s environment (e.g., parental pressure) in shaping this behaviour?
(iv) Suggest one way Rahul could develop better self-regulation.
Answer
(i) Rahul exhibits Type A personality. He is highly competitive, aggressive, impatient, and driven to achieve — classic Type A characteristics. He pushes himself excessively and reacts with anger when others outperform him. Type A individuals are at higher risk for stress-related health problems.
(ii) Rahul is using Projection — he is attributing his own excessive work behaviour to others by calling them “lazy,” thus avoiding acknowledging his own unhealthy patterns. Some may also interpret this as Rationalisation — justifying his extreme behaviour by claiming it is normal.
(iii) The Behavioural Approach would emphasise that Rahul’s personality has been shaped by environmental factors such as parental expectations, reinforcement for high achievement, and punishment or criticism for failure. His competitive behaviour may have been learned through observation and reinforcement.
(iv) Rahul could practise self-regulation by:
- Self-observation: Monitoring his study hours and stress levels
- Self-evaluation: Setting realistic goals rather than aiming for perfection
- Self-reinforcement: Rewarding himself for balanced behaviour (e.g., taking breaks, socialising)
- Practising mindfulness or relaxation techniques to manage anxiety
Q13. (Source-Based)
Read the passage below and answer the questions:
“Carl Rogers believed that every person has an inherent tendency towards growth and self-actualisation. He argued that psychological problems arise when there is a gap between a person’s ‘real self’ (who they actually are) and their ‘ideal self’ (who they wish to be). Rogers emphasised the importance of receiving unconditional positive regard — being accepted and valued without any conditions.”
(i) What does Rogers mean by “unconditional positive regard”?
(ii) Explain the concepts of “real self” and “ideal self.” What happens when there is a large gap between them?
(iii) To which approach to personality does Rogers belong? Name one other psychologist from the same approach.
Answer
(i) Unconditional positive regard means accepting and valuing a person completely, without any conditions or judgement. It means loving and respecting someone regardless of what they do or say. Rogers believed this is essential for healthy personality development — when people receive conditional regard (“I will love you only if you behave well”), they suppress parts of themselves, leading to incongruence.
(ii) The real self is who a person currently is — their actual thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. The ideal self is who a person aspires to be — their goals, ambitions, and desired qualities.
When there is a large gap (incongruence) between the real self and ideal self, a person experiences anxiety, dissatisfaction, and low self-esteem. Conversely, when the real self and ideal self are closely aligned (congruence), a person experiences well-being, self-acceptance, and personal growth.
(iii) Rogers belongs to the Humanistic Approach to personality, which emphasises free will, personal growth, and the innate tendency towards self-actualisation. Another prominent psychologist from this approach is Abraham Maslow, who proposed the hierarchy of needs and the concept of self-actualisation.
Q14. (Competency-Based – Application)
A mental health professional uses the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to assess a patient’s personality. The patient is shown a picture of a person sitting alone on a park bench and is asked to make up a story about it.
(i) What type of personality assessment technique is the TAT?
(ii) Explain how the psychologist interprets the patient’s story.
(iii) Give one advantage and one disadvantage of this technique compared to a self-report measure like the MMPI.
Answer
(i) The TAT is a projective technique of personality assessment. It was developed by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan.
(ii) The psychologist analyses the story for recurring themes, emotions, motives, and conflicts that the patient projects onto the characters. Since the picture is ambiguous, it is assumed that the patient projects their own unconscious needs, desires, fears, and conflicts onto the characters and situations in the story. For example, if the patient consistently creates stories about loneliness and rejection, this may indicate underlying feelings of isolation or abandonment.
(iii)
Advantage: The TAT can reveal unconscious motives, conflicts, and emotional states that the individual may not be aware of or may be unwilling to report directly. It is harder to fake since there are no “correct” answers.
Disadvantage: Interpretation is highly subjective — different psychologists may interpret the same story differently, leading to low inter-rater reliability. In contrast, self-report measures like the MMPI are scored objectively and produce standardised scores that can be compared across individuals.