(b) Hans Selye

Selye proposed the GAS model describing the body’s three-stage response to prolonged stress: Alarm Reaction, Resistance, and Exhaustion.

(c) Problem-focused coping

Making a study timetable is a direct, practical approach to dealing with the source of stress (exams). It involves actively planning and organising to reduce the stressor.

(b) Wanting to eat chocolate cake but worrying about gaining weight

In an approach-avoidance conflict, a single goal has both attractive (delicious cake) and unattractive (weight gain) aspects.

(b) Psychoneuroimmunology

This field studies the interaction between psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system.

(b) Stock market analysis

The WHO identified 10 core life skills including self-awareness, empathy, critical thinking, creative thinking, decision-making, problem-solving, communication, interpersonal relationships, coping with stress, and coping with emotions.

Hans Selye identified three stages in the body’s response to prolonged stress:

1. Alarm Reaction: The body recognises the stressor and initiates the fight-or-flight response — heart rate increases, adrenaline is released, muscles tense, and the body mobilises energy.

2. Resistance: The body attempts to cope with the continuing stressor. Physiological responses remain elevated, but the body appears to function normally on the surface. Internal resources are being consumed.

3. Exhaustion: If stress continues for too long, the body’s resources become depleted. Resistance breaks down, leading to increased vulnerability to diseases, organ damage, or even death.

Both strategies can be effective depending on the nature of the stressor.

Positive health is more than the absence of disease — it is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being (as defined by WHO).

Four ways to promote positive health:

1. Regular exercise — at least 30 minutes of physical activity daily reduces stress and improves mood
2. Balanced nutrition — a healthy diet supports both physical and mental well-being
3. Adequate sleep — 7–9 hours of quality sleep helps the body recover and the mind function optimally
4. Social support — maintaining positive relationships provides emotional support and a sense of belonging

Nature of Stress:

Stress is a pattern of responses that occurs when events (stressors) disturb a person’s equilibrium and exceed their perceived ability to cope. It involves:

• An environmental demand (the stressor)
• The individual’s appraisal of the demand
• The individual’s response (physiological, psychological, behavioural)

Types of Stress:

1. Eustress (positive stress) — motivates and enhances performance. Example: Excitement before a sports competition.
2. Distress (negative stress) — causes anxiety, impairs performance, harms health. Example: Coping with the death of a family member.

Sources of Stress:

1. Life events — Major changes such as death of a loved one, divorce, marriage, job loss. Holmes and Rahe developed a scale to measure the stress caused by life events.
2. Daily hassles — Small, recurring daily irritations such as traffic jams, deadlines, and household chores. Research shows that accumulated hassles can be as harmful as major life events.
3. Traumatic events — Severe, overwhelming events such as natural disasters, war, accidents, or abuse, often leading to PTSD.
4. Internal sources — Frustration (goal blocked), conflict (incompatible goals), and pressure (self-imposed or external expectations).

Stress Management Techniques:

1. Relaxation techniques: Deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and guided imagery help reduce physiological arousal.
2. Meditation and Yoga: Regular practice calms the mind, reduces cortisol levels, and enhances emotional regulation.
3. Exercise: Physical activity releases endorphins (natural mood boosters) and reduces stress hormones.
4. Cognitive restructuring: Identifying and changing negative thought patterns (e.g., catastrophising) into more balanced, realistic thoughts.
5. Social support: Talking to friends, family, or a counsellor provides emotional comfort, advice, and practical help.
6. Time management: Prioritising tasks, breaking them into smaller steps, and avoiding procrastination reduce feelings of being overwhelmed.

Life Skills and Well-being:

The WHO identified 10 life skills that help individuals deal effectively with daily challenges:

• Self-awareness helps a person recognise their emotions and triggers
• Empathy builds strong relationships and reduces interpersonal conflict
• Critical thinking enables objective evaluation of situations
• Problem-solving provides constructive approaches to difficulties
• Effective communication prevents misunderstandings and builds trust

These skills collectively build psychosocial competence, enabling individuals to handle stress, make responsible decisions, and maintain positive mental health.

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

The field of psychoneuroimmunology has established that chronic stress leads to sustained cortisol release, which suppresses the immune system’s ability to fight infections. This is why stressed individuals are more susceptible to colds, infections, and other illnesses. The reason correctly explains the mechanism behind the assertion.

(i) Two sources of stress:

1. Academic pressure — the demand to study for board exams and the self-imposed expectation of scoring above 95%
2. Internal pressure (perfectionism) — her belief that anything less than 95% means “my life is over” creates intense internal stress

(ii) Aisha may be in the Resistance stage transitioning towards Exhaustion. Her body has been coping with chronic stress for a prolonged period (staying up late, poor nutrition), but the physical symptoms (frequent headaches and colds) suggest her body’s resistance is wearing down and her immune system is being compromised.

(iii) Aisha is primarily using problem-focused coping (studying more to address the exam), but in an unhealthy and unsustainable way. She is neglecting emotion-focused coping entirely — she has stopped socialising, is not managing her emotions, and her catastrophic thinking (“my life is over”) is unchecked. A balanced approach would combine effective study planning with stress management.

(iv) Two strategies:

1. Cognitive restructuring — helping Aisha challenge her catastrophic belief (“If I don’t score 95%, my life is over”) and replace it with a more realistic thought (“I will do my best; my worth is not defined by one exam score”)
2. Time management and balanced routine — creating a structured study schedule that includes regular breaks, adequate sleep (7–8 hours), balanced meals, and time for relaxation and social interaction

(i) “Social support as a buffer” means that social support acts as a protective factor that softens or absorbs the negative impact of stress. Even when individuals face significant stressors, having a strong social network reduces the harmful effects on physical and mental health. This is known as the buffering hypothesis — social support does not eliminate stress but cushions its impact.

(ii) Two types of social support:

1. Emotional support — expressions of care, empathy, love, and trust (e.g., a friend listening to your problems)
2. Informational support — advice, guidance, and useful information (e.g., a teacher helping you create a study plan)

Other types include instrumental support (tangible help like money or materials) and appraisal support (feedback for self-evaluation).

(iii) Socially isolated individuals are more vulnerable because:

• They lack emotional comfort — there is nobody to share their worries with, increasing feelings of loneliness and helplessness
• They miss practical help — no one to share tasks or provide tangible assistance during difficult times
• They have no external perspective — without others to challenge negative thinking, they may spiral into unhealthy cognitive patterns
• Research shows isolation increases stress hormones and weakens the immune system through sustained physiological arousal